{N}THE OPHEL{/}

"Ophel" is the name normally used to designate the ancient city of David. Strictly speaking, the term "Ophel" means "tumor." It refers specifically to the raised terrain immediately to the south of the Mountain of the Temple. As the city gradually expanded across the west hill, it kept its ancient name of Zion. The term, "Ophel," was kept for the old city of David that was built on the sloping hill running down to the wall south of the esplanade of the Temple toward the Pool of {N}Siloam{/}. The Ophel is thus enclosed on the east by the {N}Kidron{/} Valley and on the west by the {N}Tyropoeon{/} Valley.
This triangle covering between four and five hectares conserves the traces of a past that is being discovered to the degree that archeological excavations are progressing. Little by little the history of the city can be read in the stones that are unearthed. It reveals its walls, its ancient houses, and even its ingenious works carried out over the course of centuries to conceal the spring of Gihon from possible enemies. Here one understands the role that the Holy City has played in the history of the world and of believers.

{K}- CITY OF DAVID{/}
Since the end of the XIX century Archeologists began taking interest in the history of Jerusalem. The great works begun on the eastern slope of the Ophel since 1962 and the latest excavations have brought to light extremely valuable information about the City of David. 

{K}ORIGINS{/}
The Ophel had been occupied since the IV millennium BC. A new settlement, probably made up of farmers, appeared on the eastern part of the hill at the beginning of the III millennium. This location, later abandoned for more than a millennium, would be reconstructed as a city of the {N}Jebusites{/}. It was a city-state as was common in Palestine and which the Bible mentioned as one of the seven Canaanite nations which were to be conquered [Dt_7,1]. Nothing is known of this period, so to say, except for the letters of a king of Jerusalem, Abed-Heba, written in the Akkadian language and discovered in the archives of the pharaoh in the city of el-Amarna. These provide us information about the relations between Egypt and this city in the XIV century BC. From that time date the enormous foundations which were necessary to support the fortress of this Jebusite city.

{K}TIME OF THE KINGS{/}
At the foot of the eastern slope of the hill, the remnants of an Israelite wall four and a half meters long retrace the ancient Jebusite wall. This protected the city whose houses were built like stairs rising to the top of the hill. Many of these houses have been excavated. One of these buildings constructed of hewn stone consisted of four houses and was called, "House of Ariel," in name of its owner as an inscription on a piece of ceramic tile indicates. Others were called, "The Burned House" or "The House of the Globes." In this last one they found 51 white clay globes with Hebrew names. Among these, one carried the name of Gemariah, Son of Saphan, a high official of King Josiah en 604 BC. His name is quoted by the Prophet Jeremiah [Jer_36,9] - [Jer_36,12]. Several pieces of ceramic dating from the VIII to the VII century, plus metal and wooden objects and little figures of the god of fertility and some seals, give us an idea of the culture of that period.
All of these things provide us with traces of the total destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians. {C}"On the seventh day of the fifth month in the nineteenth year of Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon, Nebuzaradan, commander of the bodyguard and servant of the king of Babylon, entered Jerusalem and set fire to the House of Yahweh and the royal palace as well as to all the houses in Jerusalem"{/} [2K_25,8] - [2K_25,10]. 

{K}NEHEMIAH'S RECONSTRUCTION{/}
When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem in 445 BC to undertake the construction of the city, he discovered with sorrow the ruins and the state of destruction of the walls. {C}Bringing along only the horse on which I rode, I went out by night by the Gate of the Garbage Dump. I inspected the ruined wall of Jerusalem and the burned gates. I went on to the Fountain Gate and the King's Reservoir, but my horse could not pass through anywhere. So I went up, in the night, by the ravine. I inspected the wall and turned back, entering by the Valley Gate.
The counselors did not know where I had been or what I was doing\u0085Then I said to them, 'You yourselves see the misery we are in because Jerusalem lies in ruins and its gates burned. Come, let us rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and put an end to this humiliating situation.' And I recounted to them how the good hand of God had helped me\u0085Everyone said, 'Let us begin the work.' And they encouraged one another to make this good work a reality"{/} [Ne_2,13] - [Ne_2,18].
The most ancient parts of a wall that was reconstructed several times date from the time of the return from captivity; it overlooks the ruins of the ancient houses.

{K}RESTORATION IN THE MACCABBEAN EPOCH{/}
The battles for independence of the Jewish province and for religious freedom fought by the Maccabees against the Seleucids occasioned terrible reprisal attacks against the walls of Jerusalem. This necessitated repeated repairs: {C}Jonathan took up residence in Jerusalem and began rebuilding and restoring the city. He commanded the builders to build the walls and the defenses of Mount Zion with hewn stones. And they did so{/} [1Mac_10,10] - [1Mac_10,11].
The first book of Maccabees returns to this theme again in chapter twelve: {C}On returning, Jonathan summoned the elders of the people. The assembly decided to build fortresses in Judea, to make the walls of Jerusalem still higher\u0085They also held an assembly to rebuild the city\u0085Part of the wall over a rushing stream had fallen{/} [1Mac_12,35] - [1Mac_12,37].


{K}- THE FOUNTAIN{/}
Approaching the time of the II millennium BC the Jebusites began the construction of their capital, but from the very beginning they were faced with the problem of lack of water. This was still in the Bronze Age when limed and caulked cisterns had not yet been invented. There were two springs: {N}Ein Roguel{/} and {N}Gihon{/}. But the first one, situated where the Kidron Valley and the Gehenna meet, was too distant to be defended in case of attack.

{K}GIHON SPRING{/}
The three hydraulic cisterns used alternatively to supply water to the city all draw from the Gihon Spring, which continues to flow today beneath the last step of the stairway leading to it. The water flows at intervals, several times a day. The very name of the spring alludes to this phenomenon. The Hebrew word, "Gihoni," means, "that which springs forth or flows," if one takes as its root "Giha," which is found seven times in the Old Testament. The people of ancient times found the alternate flowing to be a mysterious phenomenon. In reality it is caused by the alternating filling and emptying of a naturally formed siphon caused by the formation of the terrain. Because of its location on the eastern side of the overhang underneath the City of David, the fountain poured out its water into the Kidron Valley.

{K}SOLOMON'S ANOINTING{/}
Gihon Spring provided a context for the royal anointing of Solomon as described in the First Book of Kings. King David, now old and sick, awaited death in his modest palace far from the intrigues related to the succession to his throne. In the meantime, Joab leader of the army, Abiathar the high priest, and Adonijah the older brother of Solomon, conspired to unseat Solomon and seize the throne. Solomon's mother Bathsheba and the Prophet Nathan informed David about this intrigue. The old King managed to enforce his authority in a final show of strength and ordered the Prophet Nathan and the High Priest Zadok to do the following: {C}Take with you the servants of your lord and make my son Solomon ride on my own mule. Then bring him down to Gihon and let Zadok the priest and Nathan the prophet anoint him there as king of Israel\u0085From now on he will be king in my place for I have made him ruler of Israel and Judah{/} [1K_1,33] - [1K_1,35]. 


{K}- THE CANALS{/}
The three hydraulic systems fed by Gihon Spring correspond to three distinct epochs in Israel's history: Warren's shaft, the Siloam tunnel, and Hezekiah's tunnel. 

{K}WARREN'S SHAFT{/}
Recent geological investigations, supported by carbon 14 tests, have demonstrated that this subterranean hydraulic system was installed during the Jebusite period. The waters flowing through and eroding the limestone layer that forms the subsoil under the City of David have caused very interesting formations. Humans have ingeniously taken advantage of these natural galleries and wells to enlarge, protect and enhance them as a means of guaranteeing their own protection.
Warren's Shaft takes its name from the archeologist who discovered this first subterranean water network in 1867. The shaft permitted access to the spring from inside the city in case of siege, since the spring itself was located outside the walls. This hydraulic system consists of a short, irregular and almost horizontal tunnel that brings water from Gihon Spring to the base of a vertical well 14 meters high. In order to access the top of the well, the inhabitants of Jerusalem used a tunnel whose entrance was found inside the walls. The first descent of the well was so steep that steps had to be carved into the rock itself. The next slope became more moderate so that the inhabitants of the city could easily draw out water from the well, using the accustomed system of  pulleys, ropes and water bags. This combination of tunnel and well is an excellent example of what a "sinnor"-conduit is. Such complicated systems for drawing out water were found in Hazor, Megiddo and Gezer.

{K}DAVID CAPTURES JERUSALEM{/}
When David was proclaimed king by the Ancients of Judah as well as being recognized by the tribes of Israel, he decided to establish his capital on neutral ground-between the two blocks of tribes, north and south. He set his eyes on the Jebusite city of Jerusalem, and he conquered it.
The biblical narration tells us that David said: {C}"Whoever wants to defeat the Jebusites\u0085let him reach these enemies of David through the tunnel for fetching water"{/} [2S_5,8]. Joab entered by the entrance at Gihon Spring, taking advantage of the subterranean gallery that leads to the base of the cavity of Warren's shaft. The scaling of the wall posed no problem due to the roughness of the rocky walls. This permitted him to ascend the inclined tunnel which was designed to have access to the water, and then to emerge by the opening that leads into the Ophel.

{K}SILOAM (SHILOAH) TUNNEL{/}
The Siloam canal is an aqueduct built, by way of exception, as an open canal. Almost everywhere else canals are constructed inside of tunnels. Carved out of the rock, this aqueduct also has its source in the spring of Gihon and flows south along the eastern slope of the city below the walls. The water is led from the spring to the edge of the Tyropoeon Valley where it forms a small square: "the old {N}pool{/}" [Is_22,11] or "the lower pool" [Is_22,9], a large pond which today has been transformed into a place of luxuriant vegetation.
This aqueduct irrigated the nearby fields of Kidron Valley by means of openings made in its canal walls. Some of these openings are still visible today. If this canal is identified with the "Shiloah" mentioned in [Is_8,5], we can date it with the reign of Ahaz.
It is probable that it was on this spot that Isaiah pronounced in the presence of Ahaz the celebrated prophecy of the maiden who would give birth: {C}"The Lord himself will give you a sign: The maiden who is with child will bear a son and call his name Immanuel, that is, 'God-with-us'"{/} [Is_7,14] - [Is_7,16]. 
Here the prophet also threatened the unbelieving king: {C}"This people is more frightened of the kings of Damascus and Samaria, and refuses to listen to the gently flowing waters of Siloam. Therefore, the Lord will bring against then the waters of the River Euphrates-the king of Assyria with all his pomp" {/}[Is_8,6] - [Is_8,7]. Israel has ignored the loving protection of God and instead has put its confidence in King Tiglath-pileser, on whom King Ahaz has called for aid. So be it then, the Assyrian will come like a devastating river, a flooding torrent that will surely annihilate the enemies of Judah. Nevertheless, this invader will force the oppressive yoke of its fearful power on the small Reign of the South.

{K}HEZEKIAH'S TUNNEL{/}
In the VIII century BC Hezekiah, King of Judah, undertook a grandiose and creative construction without equal in any of the contemporary countries of the Middle East at a time when Sennacherib and his army were threatening to attack Jerusalem. Hezekiah built the tunnel in order to assure the defense of Jerusalem and the supply of water for its inhabitants. This work is justifiably famous because it allowed Jerusalem to resist the siege of 701 BC until the day of its miraculous liberation. {C}When Hezekiah realized that Sennacherib intended to attack Jerusalem, he summoned his officers and champions and they decided to cut off the water supply from the springs situated outside the city\u0085They said, "Why should the king of Assyria find plenty of water when he arrives?"{/} [2Chr_32,2] - [2Chr_32,4]. Then Hezekiah closed the upper opening of the waters of Gihon and redirected them underground to the western part of the City [2Chr_32,30]. 
Hezekiah's Tunnel made use of the existing gallery carrying the water from the spring of Gihon to the base of Warren's Shaft. From there the water makes its way underground the full length of the City of David until it pours into the Pool of Siloam at the extreme lower end of the Tyropoeon Valley. By the construction of the new tunnel and the Pool of Siloam, Hezekiah intended to provide a protected water supply to the south of the Ophel. It is possible that Hezekiah may also have built a wall to protect the new reservoir, and such designs are indicated in all of the best plans of Old Jerusalem. However, no remnant of such a wall has ever been found, which means that it never existed!

{K}COURAGEOUS EXCAVATION{/}
The excavation of the tunnel was a true adventure. Two teams of excavators began digging at opposite extremes and met more or less in the middle at a point in the tunnel which can easily be identified today. Nevertheless, that meeting was not without risks and difficulties. They carved the following inscription on the stone wall to commemorate that historic day: 
"The excavation was cut in the following manner\u0085while they were digging with axes, each man toward his fellowman, and while there were still three cubits of earth to be cut through, the voice of one man calling to the others was heard, showing that he was deviating to the right. When the tunnel was driven through, the excavators met man to man, axe to axe, and the water flowed for 1,200 cubits from the spring to the reservoir. The height of the rock above the heads of the excavators was 100 cubits."
At the final stage before the breakthrough, both teams of excavators undoubtedly guided themselves by the sound of the voices of the others, as they searched for one another. This explains the failed attempts visible to either side before finally meeting one another. It is also possible that the miners encountered harder stones which necessitated changing direction. This would explain the reason for the S-curve in the central part of the tunnel. Hezekiah's Tunnel empties into the Pool of Siloam, the upper pool [Is_36,2], a new reservoir that should not be confused with the lower pool.

{K}THE POOL OF SILOAM (SHILOAH){/}
The Feast of Tabernacles is celebrated at the beginning of autumn before the coming of the first rain. The priests descended every day to the Pool of Siloam to draw water in a golden pitcher which they then poured as a libation over the altar of the Temple. The pilgrims externalized their celebration of this feast, each waving his "lulab" which is a palm branch interlaced with willow and myrtle cuttings to which a citron is attached (a type of green lemon). As the pilgrims waved these, they sang the Great Hallel (psalms 113 - 118 according to the Hebrew enumeration). Four golden candelabra, lit in the court of the women, illuminated the city. It was simultaneously the feast of water and of light to which [Ps_118,26] gave a messianic connotation: {C}"Blessed is he who comes in the name of the Lord."{/}
The cure of the man born blind was described in the Gospel according to John in this liturgical and messianic context. John added a notation on this occasion that "Siloam" means "sent" [Jn_9,7]. After Jesus had covered the blind man's eyes with mud, he sent him to wash in a pool that literally means the place of the one who is "sent." Jesus is the one sent by God who proclaims: {C}"I am the light of the world. He who follows me will not walk in darkness, but will have light and life"{/} [Jn_8,12).
It is in this context of the procession of the water where we should read the promise to give living water. {C}On the last and greatest day of the festival, Jesus stood up and proclaimed, "If any one is thirsty, let him come to me; and let him who believes in me drink, for the Scripture says: Out of him shall flow rivers of living water." Jesus was referring to the Spirit which those who believe in him were to receive; the Spirit had not yet been given because Jesus had not yet entered into his Glory{/}" [Jn_7,37] - [Jn_7,39].

{K}GEHENNA{/}
The Valley of Gehenna is situated on the south side of Jerusalem between Mount Zion and Mount of Evil Counsel, and from there Gehenna ends in Kidron Valley at the foot of the village of Silwan. When the territories were being partitioned among the tribes, Gehenna demarcated the boundary between the territories of Judah and Benjamin: {C}The southern border ran\u0085through the Valley of Hinnom, south of the mountainside of the Jebusites and reached Ein-Roguel {/}[Jos_18,16]. Traditionally in the New Testament this place is called the Valley of Gehenna. However, in the Israelite period it is known as: Gue Ben Hinom (Valley of the Son of Hinom). Most likely this name refers to some well known Jebusite or Canaanite.

{K}TOPHETH{/}
This valley owes its sad name to the Canaanite practice of child sacrifice on this spot. Later, worship was offered to the god Molech by idolatrous Israelites, as numerous Old Testament texts indicate. For example, King Ahaz (who ruled over Judah from 735-716 BC) {C}walked in the way of the kings of Israel and even sacrificed his son in the fire, according to the hateful practices of these nations which Yahweh had expelled from the land, so the children of Israel could occupy their place{/} [2K_16,13] - [2K_16,14]. In fact, excavations have uncovered sarcophagi of carbonized children. Such is the association that Topheth has in the Old Testament. In the New Testament it served as a symbol of the condemned.
The prophets vehemently condemned the barbarous practices of their day: {C}Hear the word of Yahweh, kings of Judah and citizens of Jerusalem! It is Yahweh the God of hosts and the God of Israel who speaks. I am about to send a disaster on this place that will make the ears of those who hear it tingle. Here they have forsaken me, offering incense to foreign gods that neither they, their fathers nor the kings of Judah have known. They have profaned this place filling it with innocent blood. They have built high places to Baal where they burn their children in fire. That is why the days will come when this place will no longer be called Topheth or the Valley of Ben Hinnom, but the Valley of Slaughter{/} [Jer_19,3] - [Jer_19,6].

{K}HACELDAMA{/}
The Greek Orthodox convent of St. Onofre in Gehenna consecrates the place that tradition since the IV century designates as "the Field of Blood." In the gospel accounts, "Haceldama," "the Field of Blood," substituted the primitive name of "Potter's Field", indicating where Judas returned the money of betrayal. {C}The priests picked up the money, and said, 'This money cannot be put into the Temple treasury, for this is the price of blood.' So they met together and decided to buy the Potter's Field with the money and make it a cemetery called Field of Blood to this day{/}.
This was almost a fulfillment of the words of the Prophet Zechariah: "They weighed out thirty pieces of silver\u0085" [Zec_11,12]. 
